IUCN/SSC Otter Specialist Group Bulletin

©IUCN/SCC Otter Specialist Group

Volume 37 Issue 2 (April 2020)

Citation: Mgomo, W and Reed-Smith, J. (2020). An Assessment of Human Attitudes towards Otters in Mbinga District, Tanzania. IUCN Otter Spec. Group Bull. 37 (2): 81 -97

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An Assessment of Human Attitudes towards Otters in Mbinga District, Tanzania

William Mgomo^1* and Jan Reed-Smith²

¹P.O. Box 65, Liparamba Game Reserve, Mbinga, Tanzania, Ranger: mgomowilliam@gmail.com
²African Otter Network, Director: africanotternetwork@gmail.com, jrsotter@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION

Information gathering on, and the conservation of small carnivores in Africa is beset with many issues; such as incomplete knowledge of behaviour, lack of community awareness or traditional bias against these species as well as frequent conflict with human neighbours. At this time, the spotted-necked otter (Hydrictis maculicollis) and African clawless otter (Aonyx capensis) are believed to occur throughout much of their former ranges but reliable status/presence information is dated for much of that area and, where populations are confirmed, the numbers are declining (Jacques et al., 2015; Reed-Smith et al.,2015).

In 2017 the African Otter Network (AON) began working with local citizen conservationists to develop a network of local otter champions. The first project was conducted in southern Tanzania where conflicts between fishermen, pond owners, and the otters had been reported. The purpose of this project was to:

1. Determine local communities’ knowledge of and attitudes towards otters,
2. Establish presence of otters and identify which species, and
3. Train a local leader for future otter conservation work.

Results from the formal survey (250 participants) have yielded information on the awareness and perception of otters as well as traditional uses of otters. The responses to the informal presentations conducted appear to indicate a positive impact as the result of having a local citizen activist involved.

STUDY AREA

Mbinga District (2002 population 404,799), Ruvuma Region of southern Tanzania. In the early 2000s there were 181 registered villages and an uncounted number of fishing centres or small camps. The district incorporates a large shoreline section of Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi) which constitutes a majority of the area (~26% in total) covered by water. Another ~22% of the region is forest with the remaining ~52% considered arable land. Within these arable areas and forests are many small streams with wetland areas which combined with the lake shoreline offer suitable habitat for both otter species.

METHODS

Twenty-four questions (Appendix A) were asked of 250 respondents; as far as possible different age classes were included but owing to the nature of the targeted area, respondent occupations are dominated by farmers, fishermen/farmers (respondent identified as involved in both occupations), and fishermen (Fig. 2, 3). If a participant did not want to answer a question or had no answer it was left blank. All interviews were conducted in Swahili by the primary author between October 2017 and November 2018. For species identification purposes photographs of both species of otter and the marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosis) were shown and individuals asked to identify the species they know and name them. Photographs were of wild individuals taken in Tanzania; none of the animals were shown eating and all where on land so the entire animal could be seen. Positive responses were scored when the individual correctly identified the animal and gave the local name known to the primary author. Additionally, several school presentations (Fig. 4) and informal meetings were conducted which presented basic information on otter behaviour and the role they play in healthy ecosystems. The project was focused on the area around Mbinga town, the shores of Lake Nyasa, and communities located near the northern edge of Liparamba Game Reserve. GPS locations of all presentations and interview sites were recorded.

Responses were evaluated based on tribal affiliation, occupation, and age groups. The latter were arbitrarily grouped to reflect school age as well as early, middle, and later work careers and exposure to traditional stories or cultural influences. Occupation categories were collapsed into farmer, fisherman, fishermen/farmers, pond owners (Fig. 1), students, other, and fish sellers to evaluate the influence of profession on attitude towards otters and knowledge of traditional uses (Appendix B). Although only 54 respondents were female, there responses also were evaluated to determine if there were any significant differences in attitude towards, or knowledge of otters between males and females (Appendix C, Appendix D).

Limitations of methods used

Efforts were made to focus on respondents who had not previously attended informal gatherings with the primary author. However, it is possible that attendance by some influenced answers to questions like; Do you like otter? Should they be conserved, etc. The sample size was not large enough to adequately evaluate any differences between men and women in their attitudes towards otters and questions were not asked of women to clearly sort out the influence of their husband’s occupation on their attitudes.

RESULTS

Interviews were conducted in 37 towns or villages and four fishing areas on Lake Nyasa; all respondents reported as being from the Liparamba, Mbinga, or Lake Nyasa areas. School programs reached approximately 2,518 students plus their teachers at one secondary school and seven primary schools located throughout the area. These presentations included educational material developed by the researchers and African Otter Network Education Director on conservation, the value of freshwater ecosystems and the role otters play in these habitats.

Informal discussions and presentations were conducted in all communities visited, including the area around the Liparamba Game Reserve (~90 farmers and park staff), with fishermen along the Lake Nyasa shoreline, pond owners, and two community leader groups. A total of roughly 150 fishermen, 30 fish keepers (pond owners) and 700 farmers or villagers participated in discussions about conservation and the area’s otters. These meetings included the use of photos (otters sunning themselves on land taken in Tanzania) to identify the otter species, a short talk about the biology of otters, and a discussion about the participants’ familiarity with, and reaction to the otters they encounter. The 250 survey participants were selected from these communities. Most were interviewed prior to meetings but not all. A breakdown of responses based on sex is in Appendix C and along occupational lines for males and female in Appendix D. No significant differences were found, perhaps due to the small female sample size.

Study participants (male = 196, female = 54) ranged in age from 15 to 84 years.  They reported as being from ten tribal affiliations (Appendix B) and provided otter names in four local languages. Of the 26 people who mentioned the use of otter skin (most often from the tail specifically) to treat cerebral meningitis in children 16 were from the Matengo tribe and the other 10 were Ngoni; all 26 were farmers and all reported awareness only of the African clawless otter. There were no other correlations with tribe and attitude towards otters or knowledge of traditional uses.

Awareness of otters and which species was correlated somewhat with occupation. Of the 98 farmers interviewed, 65% reported being familiar with the African clawless otter. Of the 41 fishermen interviewed, 78% were familiar only with the spotted-necked otter. Also, out of 62 farmers who also reported spending time fishing (fishermen/farmers) 74% were familiar only with the spotted-necked otter and 21% were familiar with both species. Somewhat interesting was of the 27 people who reported they had a fish pond of some kind 74% were familiar only with the spotted-necked otter and 33% were familiar with both species.

Do you like Otters?

Farmers– Seventy-two (81%) said they liked them and 21 said they do not like them; 80 said they caused no harm and 15 responded they did cause them harm with one additional citing of only some harm. Of the 21 who responded they did not like otters 11 responded the otters caused no harm to them and two of the respondents who did not know otters replied they caused harm.

Fishermen – Twenty-four (58%) reported they like otters, 16 that they did not like them and one did not know. Thirty-one (76%) reported otters cause significant harm (n = 19), only some damage (n = 12), and 10 replied the otters caused them no harm.

Questions 12 – 17 regarding kind of harm, fishing equipment/practice and economic impact

Of the 250 respondents, 152 replied to one or more of the questions regarding the kind of harm caused, how often, fishing equipment used, how long nets are left in the water, how much does it cost, and how much do you earn from fishing or your pond. Of these, nine farmers responded they cause harm by polluting water with their scats, have heard they destroy nets, and/or eat fish. One respondent listed in other category (did not identify as fisherman or pond owner) replied they destroy nets, eat fish, and often cause harm. One farmer replied otters sometimes eat his chickens; one student and three fish sellers had heard of them destroying nets and eating fish. One pond owner knew of them killing a bird. This left 136 who responded to at least four of the six questions which form the basis for the following table (respondents may have mentioned more than one kind of harm).

Uses of Otters

Several traditional uses were mentioned. A few individuals reported only hearing of a particular use; however, the majority characterized it as “I/we believe…”, “We use otter for…” or in the case of eating otters all but one reported doing so themselves. As mentioned earlier, use of otters to treat cerebral meningitis in children was associated with respondents from two tribes.

The only tradition that appears to be associated with occupation is belief in the presence of a root in the otter’s mouth. Sixteen of the 37 respondents reporting this were fishermen and 16 were fishermen/farmers. Five were farmers who reported of hearing of this. The two mentions of use in treating constipation were from pond owners; one cited using boiled meat and the other using otter feces. Of the 176 responses from the 151 participants who knew of a traditional use 52 said they are eaten, 37 were of the legend of the otter’s mouth root, and 87 dealt with medicinal or a cultural traditional use.

Uses reported include (Table 5):

• Skin and claws – to cure cerebral meningitis in children; some specify the skin of tail is to be used. Both also used as unspecified charms. Skin specifically is used to make hats, drums, musical instruments, a charm to improve sexual function/attraction, and when boiled to treat constipation in children.
• Claws – three reports they are used by fishermen however, these reports were based on hearsay.
• Bones – used in traditional medicine but no specifics.
• Mouth root – fishermen believe the otter has a root in its mouth that helps them catch fish; if you get one of these it will improve your catch when tied to your fishing net.
• Oil from otter – used to treat ears.
• Scats – used to treat constipation in children; believed useful because otters spread their scat everywhere.
• Meat – both species are eaten and when eaten also used to improve sexual prowess.
• Traditional medicine – several respondents reported knowing, or having heard of otters use in traditional medicine but were not specific as to how.
• It was reported that the Wampoto believe the African clawless otter uses it tail to catch crabs. This process involves dangling their tail in the water and when the crab grabs on the otter pulls its tail from the water and eats the crab.

Why do you think otters are hard to see?

• Don’t know – 25%
• Human presence/activities – 25%*
• Where they live – 31%**
• Not many otters – 6%
• People do not care about them so don’t see – 5%
• Activity cycle – 2%
• Clever animals – 3%
• Destruction of their environment – 3%

* Human presence/activities included attempts to kill, general activities, and human density in area

** Where they live included identifying far from people and need to live in “cool” location.

What is your opinion about what should be done about otters?

(Based on the wording of some responses it appears that some of the interviewees may have attended a presentation by the researcher prior to participating in the survey. In these cases [all scored under Protect or Conservation Education], their responses were comments like: “good indicators of healthy environment” or “should be protected for future generations”.)

• No opinion - 21%
• Protect them - 44%*
• Eliminate them - 16%**
• Provide more education to people about conservation – 18%
• Educate people how to avoid – 1%
• Do research of various kinds – 6%***

*Protect – reasons ranged from their value to healthy ecosystems, their value in traditional medicine, as a meat source, to tourism, and simple “protect them” statements which sometimes cited “we are supposed to protect for future generations” or so “we can benefit from them”.

** All of the individuals who want them eliminated are fishermen, farmers who also fish, or owners of ponds who raise fish for income/food.

***Of those who mentioned research the goals ranged from understanding how to avoid them (fishermen), if they actually do cure cerebral meningitis, how people can benefit from them, and to better understand their conservation.

DISCUSSION

Some information on the awareness of (Stevens 2011, Akpona et al. 2015) as well as the consumptive use of, and traditional lore about spotted-necked otters and African clawless otter has been collected in Benin (Djagoun et al. 2009, Akpona et al. 2015), Ethiopia (Ergete et al. 2017), South Africa (e.g. Simelane and Kerley 1998, Whiting et al. 2013 and Tanzania (Reed-Smith et al. 2010, DeLuca and Mpunga 2012, 2013). A review of this literature indicates that overall otters are unknown by the majority of people living in Africa (e.g. only 18% of local Lake Victoria students (N = 932) provided an acceptable name for otter in a survey by Stevens, 2011). Where they are known the immediate reaction is often to dislike them as in the Stevens (2011) survey in which 34% of those who knew of them disliked the otter and less than 50% of the students aware of otters wanted them nearby. Ergete et al. (2017) reported that 91% of 204 fishermen interviewed at Lake Tana, Ethiopia viewed otters (African clawless) as pests and of no economic value and 85% want them exterminated. Akpona et al. (2015) initially interviewed 165 fishermen in Benin to assess perceptions of spotted-necked otter predation and cost of this to them. Their final analysis determined that there was a demonstrable loss (~82% of which is a result of net damage) but this represented about a 9% documented loss versus the 30% estimated by the fishermen. These results and other reports indicate the negative attitudes towards the otter and damage caused by them to fishing equipment present serious hurdles to conservation of these species.

The results of this survey appear to contradict this literature in that 68% responded they liked otters and 44% stated they should be conserved. While hopeful, this positive outcome also could be influenced by consumptive use factors such as their use in traditional medicine and use as a food source. Alternatively, the high positive response rate could be attributed to a mentioned hope the otters could attract tourists to an area not often visited by international visitors, or indicative that respondents simply were aware of the researchers’ interest and gave an answer that would please them. This study is in line with others in that of those who responded to “Do the otters cause you harm?” 76% of the fishermen and 82% of self-identified fishermen/farmers said they do cause harm. Eighteen percent of the survey respondents reported eating otters and 34% reported being familiar with traditional uses for otters. De Luca and Mpunga (2012, 2013) also reported on several traditional uses of otter and found that otters were eaten in southern Tanzania.

The responses to, “Why do you think otters are hard to see?” are indicative of some familiarity with otters (active at night, general numbers are not high, and their behavior allows them to avoid or hide from people), and awareness of changes in the freshwater ecosystems that are harmful to all wildlife (destruction of environment).

Rural Africans, living a subsistence existence, regard any animal which has the potential to kill or consume anything belonging to them, or what they could consume themselves, as an enemy. At the same time, most wild animals are also regarded as a source of food and needed protein. A study of this type helps nature conservationists and wildlife biologists understand the people that they are dealing with and therefore develop ways of trying to impart accurate (and appropriate) knowledge. If cultural beliefs, perceptions towards wildlife, and the economic problems (real and perceived) associated with sharing their environment with animals are better understood we have a better chance of preserving Africa’s otters and the freshwater ecosystems important to otters and people alike.

Acknowledgements: We thank the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium for funding the project and Idea Wild for providing equipment. Our gratitude also goes to the African Otter Network for funding and guidance. Many others assisted including Carol Bennetto and Margherita Bandini who helped develop and create the outreach materials; Hobokela Mwamjengwa who is AON Outreach Coordinator for Tanzania; John Ngoma who generously drove the team around; Dr. David Rowe-Rowe for advice and editing assistance, and Mr. Ramadhan Isomanga who as Project Manager of the Liparamba Game Reserve gave the primary researcher time to accomplish his goals.

REFERENCES

Akpona, A.H., Djagoun, C.A.M.S., Barrington, L.A., Kabré, A.T., Mensah, G.A., Sinsin, B. (2015). Conflict between spotted-necked otters and fishermen in Hlan River, Benin. Journal for Nature Conservation 27:63-71.
De Luca, D.W., Mpunga, N.E. (2012). Carnivores of the Mt. Rungwe-Kitulo landscape, Southwest Tanzania: presence, distributions and threats. Wild. Cons. Soc. pp 33.
De Luca, D.W., Mpunga, N.E. (2013). Small carnivores of the Mt. Rungwe-Kitulo landscape, southwest Tanzania: presence, distributions and threats. Small Carn. Cons. 48:67-82.
Djagoun, C.A.M.S., Kindomihow, V., Sinsin, B. (2009). Diversity and ethnozoological study of small mammals in villages surrounding the Pendjari biosphere reserve in Benin. In: Traditional forest-related knowledge and sustainable forest management in Africa. Papers from the conference held in Accra, Ghana, 15-17 October 2008.
Ergete, E.A., Hailermariam, T.W., Balakrishnan, M., Serfass, T.L. (2017). Fishermen Knowledge and Conflict with African Clawless Otter in and around Lake Tana, Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology, 56(2): 409– 413. https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12447
Jacques, H., Reed-Smith, J., Somers, M. (2015). Aonyx capensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T1793A21938767.en
Reed-Smith, J., Olouch, I., Ooriga, M., Kihedu, T.S., Muhabi, M.M., Yusuf, M.M., Ogada, M., Lobora, A., Serfass, T. (2010). Consumptive uses of and lore pertaining to spotted-necked otters in East Africa – A preliminary report from the Lake Victoria area of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. IUCN Otter Spec. Group Bull. 27(2): 85-88.
Reed-Smith, J., Jacques, H., Somers, M. (2015). Hydrictis maculicollis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015.
 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T12420A21936042.en.
Simelane, T.S., Kerley, G.I.H. (1998). Conservation implications of the use of vertebrates by Xhosa traditional healers in South Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 28(4): 121-126.
Stevens, S.S. (2011). Flagship species, tourism, and support for Rubondo Island National Park, Tanzania. PhD. Thesis University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA.
Whiting, M.J., Williams, V.L., Hibbitts, T.J. (2013). Animals traded for traditional medicine at the Faraday market in South Africa: species diversity and conservation implications. In: Alves, R., Rosa, I. (eds) Animals in Traditional Folk Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

Appendix A: Information Gathered and Questions Asked.

All respondents were interviewed by the same person. Questions were asked and answered in Swahili then translated into English. Some individuals had been exposed to presentations by the primary researcher (e.g. students, some pond owners, and some fishermen). How this tainted their responses is unknown but suspected to have led to some responses that they liked otters even though they caused harm. However, in the majority of those cases, the individual did state the harm was minimal. All interviews were conducted between October 2017 and October 2018.

1. Date
2. Name
3. Sex
4. Age
5. Tribal affiliation
6. Where interviewed
7. Where from
8. Occupation
9. Do you know these animals (photos of otters and mongoose shown)?
10. Do you like this animal?
11. Do they cause you harm?
12. If yes, what kind of damage (e.g. eat/damage fish, economic, damage to nets, traps, ponds)?
13. What kind of net do you use?
14. How long is it left in the water?
15. How often do they cause harm?
16. What is the cost of this harm to you?
17. How much do you earn from fishing/your pond?
18. Are you familiar with any traditional uses of otter?
19. If yes, what?
20. Is clean water important for people and wildlife?
21. Is healthy vegetation important for people and wildlife?
22. Do you have any thoughts about the environment or what should be done to care for it?
23. How many otter species do you know? Asked to identify them from the photos.
24. Is it difficult to see otters? If yes, why do you think this is?
25. What is your opinion of otters? Should they be protected, left alone, eliminated?

Appendix B: Basic Study Information

 
Appendix C: Respondent breakdown – Women versus Men

Appendix D: Women versus Men by Occupation

Resume: Evaluation du Comportement de l’Homme face aux Loutres dans le District de Mbinga en Tanzanie
Une enquête de type questionnaire a été réalisée auprès des résidents ruraux du district de Mbinga, dans le sud de la Tanzanie. Deux cent cinquante personnes, âgées de 15 à 84 ans, ont été interrogées, parmi celles-ci des agriculteurs, des agriculteurs/pêcheurs, des pêcheurs et d'autres personnes. Les informations recueillies chez les personnes interrogées concernaient leur connaissance des deux espèces de loutres (Aonyx capensis et Hydrictis maculicollis), leurs acceptations et rejets des loutres, les dégâts au matériel, aux poissons dans les filets et les étangs, la perception de l'impact sur les populations de poissons, les coutumes traditionnelles et leurs utilisations. Des avis sur la conservation et la gestion futures des loutres ont été obtenues. Toutes les réponses ont été corrélées avec l'appartenance tribale, les professions, le sexe et l'âge des personnes interrogées. Les résultats seront utilisés pour mieux comprendre les opinions et attitudes des habitants locaux concernant les loutres et orienter la conception de matériel de sensibilisation à la conservation des eaux douces afin de répondre aux besoins de la population et de la faune sauvage. L'élaboration de ce futur programme mettra l'accent sur la nécessité de faire preuve d'empathie quant aux exigences et perceptions économiques humaines lors de la conception d'un plan acceptable et réalisable au profit de la conservation des loutres et de leur environnement.
Revenez au dessus

Resumen: Evaluación de las Actitudes Humanas hacia las Nutrias en el Distrito de Mbinga, Tanzania
Condujimos una encuesta con cuestionarios, entre los residentes rurales del distrito de Mbinga, sur de Tanzania. Entrevistamos a 250 personas, de edades entre 15 y 84 años, abarcando campesinos, campesinos/pescadores, pescadores, y otros. Recolectamos información sobre el conocimiento de los encuestados acera de las dos especies de nutrias de la zona (Aonyx capensis e Hydrictis maculicollis), su gusto o disgusto para con las nutrias, daños a sus equipamientos, peces capturados en redes, peces en estanques, impactos percibidos sobre las poblaciones de peces, conocimientos tradicionales, y qué usos se hacen de las nutrias. Pedimos opiniones sobre la futura conservación y manejo de las nutrias. Todas las respuestas fueron correlacionadas con la pertenencia tribal, ocupaciones, sexo y edades de los que respondieron. Los resultados serán utilizados para entender mejor las opiniones y actitudes de los habitantes locales respecto de las nutrias, y guiar la creación de materiales de difusión sobre conservación en agua dulce, de manera que se tengan en cuenta las necesidades de la gente y de la fauna. El desarrollo de este programa futuro pondrá énfasis en la necesidad de empatizar con los requerimientos económicos y percepciones humanos al momento de crear un plan aceptable y viable, que beneficie la conservación de las nutrias y su ambiente
Vuelva a la tapa

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